Nfluence motivations to maintain or alter behaviors, which may be also

Nfluence motivations to maintain or alter behaviors, which may be also sustained or changed in interaction with the social environment and the resources expended and received from this interaction. Affective regulation processes also shape the relation between individuals’ behavioral outcomes and the dynamics and components of structural systems. Coping with depression and dysphoria and the physical and psychological 4-Deoxyuridine web impact of withdrawal from opiates, alcohol, and stimulants ARA290 cost involve affective regulation processes that may affect risk practices. 65 Further, both affective and cognitive processes are shaped by other attributes of the individual such as biological sex, age, mental health, HIV status, and physical disabilities. Risk reduction skills can be viewed as both an attribute of the individual and as an ongoing process based on the mental and in situ practice of skills and the feedback derived from the proximal social environment when enacting those skills. Access A key factor linking HIV-related behavioral outcomes to multilevel structural factors is access. This includes access to risk reduction technologies, such as condoms and syringes, as well as access to information, subsistence, and sources of power or influence. Access to prevention tools is influenced by prices, laws, and distribution infrastructure. The enhanced access provided by needle exchange programs has had a dramatic influence on syringe sharing.66 Access to HIV testing is a function of technology, resources, and policies; however, access alone does not necessarily lead to increased uptake of HIV testing. In addition to resources to prevent or mitigate HIV risks, access also includes availability of illicit drugs, alcohol, and sexual partners, including main, casual, and exchange partners who may or may not be infected with the virus.NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author ManuscriptAIDS Behav. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2011 December 1.Latkin et al.PageApplication of the ModelSafer Injection FacilitiesNIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author ManuscriptSafer injection facilities (SIFs) are sanctioned physical settings where injection drug users can inject pre-obtained drugs under the supervision of health care professionals. One of the main goals of SIFs is HIV prevention by providing access to clean injection equipment and ensuring that injection equipment is not shared. Health care professionals are also available to address drug overdoses and other health needs such as treating injection site abscesses. Many SIFs also have staff to address other needs, such as drug treatment, HIV testing, and housing. To be viable, SIFs need to be explicitly or tacitly sanctioned by criminal justice officials in countries where injection drug use is illegal. According to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, more than sixty of these facilities operate in Europe.67 There are also several SIFs in Australia and one in Vancouver, Canada.68 Figure 2 presents an analysis of SIFs from a structural perspective. SIFs require allocation of material and financial resources at multiple levels (e.g., state and local) to staff and equip the facility. Allocation of resources for social services, particularly services of a controversial political nature, may be highly contested, resulting in underresourced facilities and potential reductions in the effectiveness and the impact of the programs. Scientific knowledge ab.Nfluence motivations to maintain or alter behaviors, which may be also sustained or changed in interaction with the social environment and the resources expended and received from this interaction. Affective regulation processes also shape the relation between individuals’ behavioral outcomes and the dynamics and components of structural systems. Coping with depression and dysphoria and the physical and psychological impact of withdrawal from opiates, alcohol, and stimulants involve affective regulation processes that may affect risk practices. 65 Further, both affective and cognitive processes are shaped by other attributes of the individual such as biological sex, age, mental health, HIV status, and physical disabilities. Risk reduction skills can be viewed as both an attribute of the individual and as an ongoing process based on the mental and in situ practice of skills and the feedback derived from the proximal social environment when enacting those skills. Access A key factor linking HIV-related behavioral outcomes to multilevel structural factors is access. This includes access to risk reduction technologies, such as condoms and syringes, as well as access to information, subsistence, and sources of power or influence. Access to prevention tools is influenced by prices, laws, and distribution infrastructure. The enhanced access provided by needle exchange programs has had a dramatic influence on syringe sharing.66 Access to HIV testing is a function of technology, resources, and policies; however, access alone does not necessarily lead to increased uptake of HIV testing. In addition to resources to prevent or mitigate HIV risks, access also includes availability of illicit drugs, alcohol, and sexual partners, including main, casual, and exchange partners who may or may not be infected with the virus.NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author ManuscriptAIDS Behav. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2011 December 1.Latkin et al.PageApplication of the ModelSafer Injection FacilitiesNIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author ManuscriptSafer injection facilities (SIFs) are sanctioned physical settings where injection drug users can inject pre-obtained drugs under the supervision of health care professionals. One of the main goals of SIFs is HIV prevention by providing access to clean injection equipment and ensuring that injection equipment is not shared. Health care professionals are also available to address drug overdoses and other health needs such as treating injection site abscesses. Many SIFs also have staff to address other needs, such as drug treatment, HIV testing, and housing. To be viable, SIFs need to be explicitly or tacitly sanctioned by criminal justice officials in countries where injection drug use is illegal. According to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, more than sixty of these facilities operate in Europe.67 There are also several SIFs in Australia and one in Vancouver, Canada.68 Figure 2 presents an analysis of SIFs from a structural perspective. SIFs require allocation of material and financial resources at multiple levels (e.g., state and local) to staff and equip the facility. Allocation of resources for social services, particularly services of a controversial political nature, may be highly contested, resulting in underresourced facilities and potential reductions in the effectiveness and the impact of the programs. Scientific knowledge ab.